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Packaging, industrial and marketing technique for containing,
protecting, identifying, and facilitating the sale and distribution of
agricultural, industrial, and consumer products. Virtually all
manufactured and processed goods require packaging during some phase of
their production and distribution. The Fair Packaging and Labeling Act,
a federal law enacted in 1966, vests regulatory authority in the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, with respect to foods, drugs, and
cosmetics, and in the Federal Trade Commission, for other commodities.
The package must maintain the purity and freshness of its contents and
protect them from the outside environment; if the contents are harmful,
corrosive, or poisonous, the package must also protect the outside
environment. The packaging itself must present no chemical hazard, as
well. The package must identify the contents and their quantity, and it
must facilitate distribution. The package may contribute to the
convenient use of its contents by special dispensing or closure
features.
PACKAGING MATERIALS The basic materials of packages today include paper,
paperboard, cellophane, steel, aluminum, glass, wood, textiles, and
plastics. These materials are processed or fabricated into flexible,
semirigid, or rigid containers. Conventional package forms include
wraps, bags, pouches, cartons, set-up boxes, cans, bottles, pails,
drums, barrels, and bulk containers. All packages must be sealed in some
way, and many require an opening for dispensing the contents.
Identification is usually accomplished by direct imprinting or by an
applied label.
Early cultures used, and preliterate cultures today continue to use,
leaves, hollowed-out tree limbs, gourds, skins, reed baskets, and
earthenware vessels as containers. As civilization developed and became
more complex, containers were developed to meet specific needs. Glass
bottles were used in Egypt more than 2000 years before the Christian
era. A jar containing an ointment, with the name of the maker engraved
on the lead cover, has been found, a "labeled" package made in ancient
Rome.
In 1746 the first package for a branded product appeared when a Briton,
Dr. Robert James, sold his "Fever-Powder" in a pasteboard box. A few
years later Yardley of London began selling its lavender water in
bottles, and Crosse and Blackwell began selling olive oil and mustard in
jars. Also in England, A. F. Pears launched what was to become one of
the most consistently prosperous industries in the world when he
established the first packaged-soap business.
MODERN PACKAGING METHODS The birth of the modern packaging industry
occurred in 1810 when two inventors, Auguste de Heine and Peter Durand,
took out patents on iron and tin containers, called cans, for preserving
foods (see Canning). During the 19th and early 20th centuries, advances
in container fabrication resulted in development of most of the standard
metal and paper containers in use today. The development of mechanical
printing processes, photoengraving, and process color printing also made
it possible to decorate the containers.
Concurrently, significant changes took place in merchandising. In 1899
the National Biscuit Company introduced its successful Uneeda Biscuit
package. This package is generally considered to have signaled the end
of the cracker-barrel, bulk-merchandising procedures of the
country-store era. The volume and variety of self-service products
available to consumers continues to expand. Today is the era of the
convenience package, including cook-in-bag and microwavable containers
for foods, spray-on bandages, blister-packaged hardware supplies, and
aseptic, easy-opening drink containers.
A linear foot of shelf space in a modern supermarket has been estimated
to be worth $300 in newspaper advertising. Each package in a major chain
of supermarkets may be displayed before 1 billion shoppers in one year.
The package must be designed to attract the attention of the shopper in
about one-fifth of a second, which is the amount of time the average
shopper surveys any particular package in a market. Surveys show that
between 50 and 70 percent of buying decisions are made on impulse at the
moment of selection. These conditions underlie the opportunity for
manufacturers to appeal to impulse buying by planning well-designed
packages.
The reported cost of packaging containers shipped in 1939 was about $2
billion. In 1947 the cost was about $5 billion. Thirty years later it
exceeded $25 billion. The total value of packaging material used at the
retail or store level, including packaging costs, is double this amount.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS Packaging presents a major problem of
environmental pollution. Millions of tons of packaging are discarded as
solid waste each year. Much effort has been expended on developing
so-called biodegradable packaging materials that will degrade naturally
into harmless components. Another means of dealing with the problem is
by recycling packaging materials, for use as new products, packages, and
fuel. In nations where space and raw materials are both at a premium,
such programs have been in operation for many years; they are expanding
rapidly in the U.S. as well. Up to 60 percent of solid waste can be
dealt with by such means.
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